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Government Abstract
For the reason that launch of Imaginative and prescient 2030 six years in the past, Saudi Arabia has made appreciable progress in decreasing the labor-cost hole between nationwide and overseas employees within the personal sector.1 Consequently, a latest report by the World Financial institution has proven that Saudi Arabia’s labor market is turning into extra aggressive with rising employee mobility.2 As well as, girls’s participation within the workforce has extra doubled since 2016, reaching a historic excessive of 35.6% in This autumn, 2021.3
Whereas the whole unemployment fee has declined just lately amongst nationals, it stays excessive at 11%, effectively above the Imaginative and prescient 2030 goal of seven%. The unemployment fee for Saudi girls stays even increased at 22.5%.4 On this paper, I argue that the unemployment fee for Saudis could be lowered considerably by insurance policies designed to bridge the price hole between residents and overseas labor within the personal sector.5
Drawing proof from Bahrain’s expertise with this labor market problem, I suggest three labor market insurance policies to steadily shut the price differential. This may enhance the competitiveness of Saudi employees within the personal sector by serving to to handle a significant cause why personal corporations at the moment favor overseas labor and encourage merit-based hiring.
Key Coverage Suggestions
- Equalize labor mobility for all employees no matter their nationality.
- Introduce a non-public sector common minimal wage for all workers no matter their nationality.
- Match social safety contributions paid by employers for nationals and overseas employees alike.
I. Introduction
Even with latest employment contract reforms, personal corporations in Saudi Arabia nonetheless favor overseas employees over nationals partly as a result of the previous are much less cellular. Regulatory restrictions enhance the probability of foreigners remaining with their employers for at the least 12 months.6 Utilizing Bahrain as a case research, I argue that granting overseas employees the correct to give up at any time would make them much less engaging within the eyes of employers, thereby rising the employability of Saudi employees within the personal sector. Based mostly on my calculations, throughout Bahrain’s experiment with full labor mobility, the wage hole was lowered to a mere 9.3%, in comparison with 22.5% within the two years previous the labor reform.7
Imposing a common personal sector minimal wage for all employees, irrespective of their nationality, would additionally cut back the wage hole, incentivizing personal corporations to rent extra Saudis. Sectors that primarily depend on low-skilled overseas labor, corresponding to development and manufacturing, may very well be exempted from this mandate.
Personal employers additionally favor non-citizens over Saudis, even when their {qualifications} and academic attainment are comparable, as a result of employers will pay much less for overseas employees below Common Group for Social Insurance coverage (GOSI) laws. Particularly, within the case of overseas employees, corporations solely pay 2% for occupational hazards. By comparability, a non-public agency that hires a Saudi employee must pay not solely the two% for occupational hazards but additionally 9% into the GOSI pension system and 0.75% into SANED, the nationwide unemployment insurance coverage system.8 To make Saudis extra aggressive out there, the GOSI contributions paid by personal corporations needs to be equalized no matter a employee’s nationality. This variation would carry Saudi Arabia into line with the insurance policies of most different labor markets around the globe.9
II. Proposed Labor Market Reforms
The next sub-sections will clarify intimately the rationale behind every of those three coverage suggestions
A. Equalizing Labor Mobility
Equalizing labor market mobility for all employees will cut back the yawning wage hole between residents and expats.10 Such a reform will make residents extra employable within the personal sector, as employees will likely be employed primarily based on advantage, slightly than the differing labor protections granted to every group. Empirical proof from Bahrain, which launched a number of labor market reforms in 2008 and 2009, helps this competition.11 Bahrain’s experiment with labor market reforms offers an instructive instance for Saudi Arabia and different Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) nations, and they’d profit from adopting comparable measures.
To fight unemployment amongst nationals and to draw expert overseas employees, Saudi Arabia handed a number of insurance policies in March 2021 that present overseas employees extra flexibility within the workforce and restrict the facility of personal employers. For instance, they will now journey exterior the nation with out the permission of their corporations.12 As well as, overseas employees can now go away employers who fall at the least three months behind on paying their wages.13 A latest IMF paper praised these reforms, arguing that they may make Saudi Arabia’s labor market extra aggressive and extra engaging to proficient overseas employees.14 Whereas these reforms are actually a step in the correct route, quite a few changes are nonetheless wanted to equalize labor mobility and cut back unemployment amongst residents.
Regardless of latest reforms, personal corporations proceed giving choice to overseas employees for 2 main causes.15 First, overseas employees should nonetheless spend 12 months with their preliminary sponsor earlier than they will swap to a different personal agency. Second, though expat workers can now apply to go away the nation earlier than their contract ends, as soon as they journey overseas, they can’t reenter Saudi Arabia through the trip interval granted to them by their employer.16 This may occasionally discourage overseas employees from leaving their employer earlier than their contract ends.
Why the Bahrain Case Issues and its Relevance to Saudi Arabia
As talked about within the introduction, Bahrain’s expertise with eliminating sure labor restrictions on overseas employees between 2009 and 2011 presents an instance of the financial advantages such reforms can create for residents and foreigners alike. Whereas Saudi Arabia’s personal sector dwarfs Bahrain’s, the 2 labor markets share an identical composition. In each nations, a big wage hole persists between nationals and foreigners,17 which ends up in a robust choice amongst personal corporations for low-skilled overseas labor.18
The desk under highlights similarities within the labor market construction of Saudi Arabia’s and Bahrain’s personal sectors. Three communalities stand out:
- Personal sectors with jobs held primarily by non-citizens
- A excessive share of overseas labor holds solely a highschool diploma or much less
- Excessive common wages for nationals relative to overseas employees.
Desk 1. Traits of the Saudi vs. Bahraini personal sectors
Nation |
Saudi Arabia |
Bahrain |
% of overseas labor |
76.3%19 |
81%20 |
% of low-skill overseas labor |
65.9%21 |
75%22 |
Wage fee differential23 |
2.53 |
2.28 |
Addressing Home Unemployment by Equalizing Employee Mobility
By 2007, Bahrain’s unemployment fee amongst residents reached 7%, remarkably excessive given its giant public sector and the small measurement of its native inhabitants.24 Bahraini policymakers had been involved that many of the jobs being produced by the personal sector had been going to overseas employees. To deal with this downside, Bahrain handed two main labor insurance policies that stay the strongest try by a Arab nation to shut the labor-wage hole between residents and overseas employees.25
First, in July 2008, Bahrain elevated the month-to-month price personal corporations should pay to make use of a foreigner from $22 to $49. In Q2, 2009 it launched an much more impactful reform that allowed all employees, no matter their nationality, to go away their job at any time.26 Bahrain’s authorities was in a position to implement this coverage regardless of opposition from personal corporations traditionally depending on low cost overseas labor.
As an instance the affect of those two labor reforms, I compute the personal sector wage hole between nationwide and expat employees’ salaries from Q1, 2002 by Q1, 2021.27 In graph 1, I spotlight three principal labor insurance policies:
- Rising month-to-month charges on corporations for hiring expat labor (inexperienced line)
- Granting all employees the correct to give up their jobs and swap employers (crimson line)
- Re-introducing labor restrictions on overseas workers on account of stress from the personal sector (purple line).28
The graph reveals that the labor-cost hole narrowed instantly after the introduction of the primary coverage.29 The wage hole then rose barely earlier than stabilizing once more after the introduction of the coverage to equalize labor mobility (crimson line).
Nonetheless, after two years, Bahrain re-introduced insurance policies (purple line) proscribing overseas workers’ mobility within the workforce. For instance, beginning in 2011, overseas employees had been required to finish 12 months with their preliminary employer earlier than being allowed to work for one more firm in Bahrain.30 Predictably, this widened the wage hole between nationwide and overseas labor. This coverage change negatively impacted not solely overseas workers but additionally residents, because it exacerbated their labor-cost drawback.
Lastly, these labor reforms additionally had a transparent affect on unemployment amongst Bahraini residents. The home unemployment fee declined considerably from round 7% in 2007 to three.6% in 2010.31 Equal mobility amongst employees eliminated a significant incentive for personal corporations to rent expat labor.32 Saudi Arabia can apply the teachings gained from Bahrain’s expertise in 2008-11 by equalizing labor mobility, which won’t solely enhance incomes for overseas employees but additionally cut back unemployment amongst residents.
B. Minimal Wage for All Employees within the Personal Sector
The Worldwide Labor Group’s (ILO) newest World Wage Report reveals that round 90% of ILO member nations have adopted minimal wages both by collective bargaining or by legal guidelines set by governments. Introducing a minimal wage for all personal sector employees in Saudi Arabia can elevate foreigners’ salaries whereas additionally decreasing unemployment amongst residents. Moreover, nations that strictly impose a minimal wage for public sector however not personal sector workers, as is the case in Saudi Arabia, are usually not categorized as having a minimal wage.32
Based on an ILO 2021 report, the Arab world has the very best share of employees who are usually not protected by minimal wage legal guidelines.33 Neither residents nor overseas employees in Saudi Arabia’s personal sector are assured a minimal wage.34 The Ministry of Human Sources and Social Improvement requires personal corporations to pay residents a minimal of 4,000 riyals per 30 days to depend them for the needs of the Nitaqat program, which imposes quotas for hiring nationals within the personal sector.35 Nonetheless, personal corporations can nonetheless pay residents under 4,000 riyals. In reality, in response to Q3, 2021 GOSI knowledge, practically 10% of Saudi personal sector employees earned lower than 4,000 riyals per 30 days. Personal employers have even higher energy to pay overseas employees lower than 4,000 riyals per 30 days, as they’re neither required by legislation to pay extra nor are they incentivized by Nitaqat laws to take action. Consequently, about 83% of overseas employees are paid lower than 4,000 riyals per 30 days by personal corporations.36
As I argued earlier, a minimal wage might steadily cut back unemployment amongst residents, which could seem puzzling at first. Quite a few research on Saudi Arabia’s labor market, corresponding to these by Hertog (2012) and the IMF (2018), counsel that the wage hole harms residents’ job prospects within the personal sector . All else being equal, personal corporations favor overseas employees due to their weaker bargaining energy.37 Controlling for instructional attainment, it’s clear that even with equal {qualifications}, overseas employees are paid much less.38 Many Saudis discover themselves with out work as a result of they’re pressured to compete towards equally certified, but considerably cheaper, overseas labor (IMF, 2018).
Can Some Companies be Exempt from Minimal Wage Rules?
An affordable concern as regards to a minimal wage in Saudi Arabia is its doubtlessly unfavourable affect on export corporations and on corporations working in sectors reliant on low-skill labor. I consider that such issues are legitimate and thus argue that some sectors that don’t attraction to Saudi employees could be exempted from minimal wage laws.
One approach to decide which financial sectors needs to be exempted is to take a look at the share of their workers which might be overseas. Desk 2 reveals that sectors like development closely depend on overseas workers, partly as a result of they don’t attraction to most Saudis.39 Consequently, even when the ministry had been to impose a minimal wage on development corporations, they’d wrestle to fill these jobs with residents.
Desk 2. Financial sectors with the very best dependence on overseas labor
Sector |
Share of overseas labor |
Agriculture & fishing |
84% |
Building |
85% |
Logistics & assist companies |
85% |
One other group of personal corporations that may very well be exempted from the minimal wage coverage are Saudi industrial and export corporations, as this may enhance their labor prices and make them much less aggressive each regionally and globally . There’s precedent for this. The Ministry of Human Sources and Social Improvement exempted such corporations from expat levy charges in September 2019 and will do the identical with the minimal wage.40 Lastly, introducing a minimal wage in Saudi Arabia, with some exemptions, would each defend overseas employees and reduce the price drawback of residents’ labor.
C. Equalizing GOSI Contributions
Based on the ILO’s World Social Safety Report for 2021, overseas and nationwide employees in most nations make the identical social safety contributions.41 For instance, in america, each residents and overseas workers are mandated to contribute the identical quantity.42 This not solely ensures fairness between all workers but additionally prevents a scenario the place one body of workers would endure a labor-cost drawback on account of its increased contribution charges. From an employer’s perspective, the next social insurance coverage contribution fee per employee successfully constitutes a tax on the agency.
Underneath the present social safety scheme for GOSI, personal corporations pay a complete of 11.75% for residents: 2% for occupational hazard, 9% for the pension system, and 0.75% for SANED.43 In distinction, personal corporations are obliged to pay solely 2% per overseas employee for GOSI’s occupational hazards plan.44
In different phrases, if two employees, one overseas and one Saudi, each earn a month-to-month wage of 10,000 riyals, the employer might want to pay 975 riyals extra in month-to-month GOSI contributions for the Saudi employee, or 11,700 riyals extra per yr. This differential is barely partially offset by annual expat levy charges of 9,600 riyals for corporations with a majority of overseas workers and eight,400 riyals for corporations with a majority of Saudi workers.
Desk 3. Whole labor prices for Saudi and overseas employees (riyals)
Nationality |
Month-to-month wage |
Whole price, together with all GOSI contributions |
Saudi |
10,000 |
11,175 |
International |
10,000 |
10,200 |
III. Conclusion
Saudi Arabia has made noticeable progress prior to now few years in implementing labor market reforms to make its personal sector extra aggressive. Over time, these reforms have facilitated girls’s integration into the workforce. Presently 35.6% of Saudi girls take part within the workforce, greater than double the speed in Q2, 2016.45 Furthermore, unemployment amongst girls declined from 30.2% in Q3, 2020 to round 22.5% in This autumn, 2021.46 The employment beneficial properties for Saudi girls have been partially pushed47 by personal corporations in sectors corresponding to retail and manufacturing, which have changed overseas labor with feminine nationals. This occurred because the labor price for hiring overseas employees elevated as a result of expat levy charges imposed on corporations since 2017, narrowing the labor-cost hole between Saudi females and overseas male workers (see graph 3).
Whereas advances in that space are laudable, the broader labor-cost hole between residents and overseas workers nonetheless desperately must be addressed. Until this peculiarity of the Saudi and GCC labor markets is resolved, residents will proceed shedding out to overseas candidates for personal sector jobs.
Coverage Suggestions
To create a stage enjoying discipline for residents within the personal sector, the Ministry of Human Sources and Social Improvement ought to implement the three following insurance policies:
- Equalize overseas employee mobility by granting overseas employees the total capability to change jobs with none restrictions, as is the case for Saudi employees.
- Undertake a common minimal wage with potential exemptions for sure sectors or corporations.
- Require overseas labor and their employers to make GOSI contributions on the identical fee as residents.
Meshal Alkhowaiter is a present first yr PhD pupil on the London College of Economics and Political Science. Meshal was a former Information Lab lead researcher on the World Financial institution Group, specializing in labor market points within the Arab world. Previous to that, Meshal labored with a analysis middle with the Ministry of Human Sources and Social Improvement (previously the Ministry of Labor).
Principal picture: Picture by FAYEZ NURELDINE/AFP by way of Getty Photos.
MEI is an unbiased, non-partisan, non-for-profit, instructional group. It doesn’t interact in advocacy and its students’ opinions are their very own. MEI welcomes monetary donations, however retains sole editorial management over its work and its publications mirror solely the authors’ views. For a list of MEI donors, please click on right here.
Endnotes
1. Worldwide Financial Fund. Saudi Arabia: 2021 Article IV Session-Press Launch; and Workers Report:
https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/CR/Points/2021/07/07/Saudi-Arabia-2021-Article-IV-Session-Press-Launch-and-Workers-Report-461736
2. Is Saudi Arabia getting into a “Nice Reshuffle”?
https://www.worldbank.org/en/information/opinion/2022/01/31/is-saudi-arabia-entering-a-great-reshuffle
3. Alkhowaiter, 2021. Exploring the rising workforce participation amongst Saudi girls. https://www.mei.edu/publications/exploring-rising-workforce-participation-among-saudi-women
4. LFS This autumn, 2021: https://www.stats.gov.sa/ar/814
5. IMF (2018): https://www.elibrary.imf.org/view/journals/002/2018/264/article-A002-en.xml
6. World Financial institution Group on Saudi labor reforms:
https://blogs.worldbank.org/peoplemove/saudi-arabia-announces-major-reforms-its-migrant-workers
7. Writer’s calculation of information from Bahrain are publicly accessible by the Labor Market Regulatory Authority.
8. GOSI contribution advantages: https://www.gosi.gov.sa/GOSIOnline/Coverages&locale=en_US#:~:textual content=Thepercent20ratepercent20ofpercent20contribution%20to,andpercent20thepercent20contributorpercent20payspercent209percent25.&textual content=Thepercent20Occupationalpercent20Hazardspercent20Branchpercent20appliespercent20mandatorypercent20topercent20Saudispercent20andpercent20nonpercent2DSaudis.
9. ILO report on Social Safety 2020:
https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/teams/public/—ed_protect/—soc_sec/paperwork/publication/wcms_817574.pdf
10. Hertog 2014. Arab Gulf States : an evaluation of nationalisation insurance policies. https://cadmus.eui.eu/deal with/1814/32156
11. Bahrain: إلغاء نظام الكفيل رسميا مع تطبيق «حرية انتقال العامل http://www.alwasatnews.com/information/50588.html
All knowledge from Bahrain are publicly accessible by the Labour Market Regulatory Authority.
12. https://www.arabnews.pk/node/1825046/saudi-arabia
13. ﺗﺤﺴﻴﻦ اﻟﻌﻼﻗﺔ اﻟﺘﻌﺎﻗﺪﻳﺔ – وزارة الموارد البشرية
https://hrsd.gov.sa/websites/default/recordsdata/5112020.pdf
14. Supra observe at 1. IMF 2021
15. تعرف على خطوات تنفيذ «خدمة التنقل الوظيفي» عبر قوى https://www.okaz.com.sa/information/native/2061336
16. . ﺗﺤﺴﻴﻦ اﻟﻌﻼﻗﺔ اﻟﺘﻌﺎﻗﺪﻳﺔ – وزارة الموارد البشرية: خدمة الخروج والعودة
Provision 6.
https://hrsd.gov.sa/websites/default/recordsdata/5112020.pdf
17. IMF 1995. Labor Market Challenges and Insurance policies in GCC. https://www.imf.org/exterior/pubs/FT/gcc/GCC3.pdf
Hertog 2012. “A comparative evaluation of labor market nationalization. http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/46746/1/Apercent20comparativepercent20assessmentpercent20ofpercent20laborpercent20marketpercent20nationalizationpercent20policiespercent20inpercent20thepercent20GCCpercent28lseropercent29.pdf
Hertog 2014. “Arab Gulf states: an evaluation of Nationalisation Insurance policies”. https://cadmus.eui.eu/bitstream/deal with/1814/32156/GLMMpercent20ResearchPaper_01-2014.pdf?sequence=1
18. IMF 2018. “Labor Market Reforms to Enhance Employment and Productiveness within the GCC”.https://www.imf.org/exterior/np/pp/eng/2013/100513.pdf
19. Saudi Arabia Labor drive survey This autumn, 2021. Desk 4. https://www.stats.gov.sa/en/814
20.. تذبذب «رسوم العمل» أجّل إلغاء «الكفيل» و«البحرنة
http://www.alwasatnews.com/information/162772.html
21. Saudi Arabia Labor drive survey This autumn, 2021. Desk 5-7.
22. Roughly 75% overseas labor have a HS diploma or much less. Desk 8. LFS Q1, 2021.
http://blmi.lmra.bh/2021/03/knowledge/gos/Table_08.pdf
23. The wage differential is predicated on labor drive survey knowledge and is measured to standardize the variations within the native forex at every nation. The wage fee differential is computed as: Common wages for nationals divided by common wage for overseas labor. Computed as=Nationals wage/ overseas labor wage.
24. البطالة في الوطن العربي حقائق وأرقام
https://www.al-jazirah.com/2007/20070121/rj9.htm
25. Supra observe at 16.
26. Supra observe at 9.
27. That is calculated because the distinction between common month-to-month wages for residents and overseas labor. A big quantity signifies a bigger wage hole between the 2 teams.
28. Labor market knowledge in Bahrain from 2002-10 are quarterly, however solely annual knowledge can be found from 2011 onwards.
29. The info listed here are derived from mixture figures, and thus I can’t management for time-varying elements corresponding to Bahraini and overseas employees’ instructional attainment, which can affect the wage hole between the 2 teams. For instance, one possible issue which will affect relative wages, however that we can’t management for is that Bahraini personal corporations could have recruited much less low-skilled overseas labor as soon as full employee mobility was granted as a result of the primary cause for hiring them (i.e. price) has been eradicated. This may occasionally in flip trigger the “median wage” for overseas employees to rise on account of modifications within the composition of current overseas labor the place remaining overseas labor are extra expert than pre-reforms and thus have increased wages.
30. Labor Market Regulatory Authority.
https://lmra.bh/portal/ar/web page/present/194#:~:textual content=%D9percent81percentD9percent8Apercent20percentD8percentADpercentD8percentA7percentD9percent84percent20percentD8percentB7percentD9percent84percentD8percentA8percent20percentD8percentA7percentD9percent84percentD8percentA7percentD9percent86percentD8percentAApercentD9percent82percentD8percentA7percentD9percent84percent20percentD8percentAFpercentD9percent88percentD9percent86,%D8percentAEpercentD9percent84percentD8percentA7percentD9percent84percent20percentD9percent86percentD8percentB8percentD8percentA7percentD9percent85percent20percentD8percentA5percentD8percentAFpercentD8percentA7percentD8percentB1percentD8%A9percent20percentD8percentA7percentD9percent84percentD8percentB9percentD9percent85percentD8percentA7percentD9
31. انخفاض معدل البطالة الى. 3.6%
http://www.alwasatnews.com/information/511462.html
32. There’s little proof exhibiting that the unemployment declined on account of extra state-hiring, as a result of public employment solely grew by 3.5% between 2007 by 2010, or 1,273 authorities jobs. Bahrain Civil Service Bureau. Desk 5 http://blmi.lmra.bh/2021/03/knowledge/csb/Table_05.pdf.
33. ILO World Wage report 2020-2021, pages 61-62.
34. ILO World Wage report 2020-2021, web page 64.
35. The Ministry of Human Sources and Social Improvement requires personal corporations to pay residents a minimal of 4,000 riyals/month to depend nationals for Nitaqat program functions (i.e. nationalization quotas within the personal sector). Nonetheless, personal corporations can nonetheless pay residents under the 4,000 riyal quantity.
36. Can Hiring Quotas Work? The Impact of the Nitaqat Program on the Saudi Personal Sector.
https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/pol.20150271
37. Writer’s evaluation of GOSI Administrative knowledge Q3 2021:
https://www.gosi.gov.sa/GOSIOnline/Open_Data_Library&locale=en_US
38. Research on the wage hole between nationals and overseas labor in Saudi Arabia:
Hertog (2012)
https://core.ac.uk/obtain/pdf/9693353.pdf
IMF (2018):
https://www.elibrary.imf.org/view/journals/002/2018/264/article-A002-en.xml
39. Writer’s evaluation of Labor Drive Survey knowledge Q2, 2021:
https://www.stats.gov.sa/ar/814
40. Labor Drive Survey Q3, 2021: https://www.stats.gov.sa/ar/814
41. MHRS excludes Industrial exporting corporations from the expat levy price:
https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saudi-economy-industrial-idUSKBN1W91WU
42. ILO’s World Social Safety 2021 report:
https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/teams/public/—ed_protect/—soc_sec/paperwork/publication/wcms_817574.pdf
43. U.S. Social Safety Administration:
https://www.ssa.gov/oact/cola/cbb.html
44. GOSI Contribution charges for residents and GCC nationals:
https://www.gosi.gov.sa/GOSIOnline/Unemployment_Insurance_(SANED)?locale=en_US
45. GOSI Occupational Hazards scheme:
https://www.gosi.gov.sa/GOSIOnline/Occupational_Hazards_Branch&locale=en_US
46. Alkhowaiter, 2021. Exploring the rising workforce participation amongst Saudi girls. Center East Institute:
https://www.mei.edu/publications/exploring-rising-workforce-participation-among…
47. LFS This autumn, 2021: https://www.stats.gov.sa/ar/814
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IMF 2018. “Labor Market Reforms to Enhance Employment and Productiveness within the GCC”.https://www.imf.org/exterior/np/pp/eng/2013/100513.pdf
Worldwide Financial Fund. Saudi Arabia: 2021 Article IV Session-Press Launch; and Workers Report:
Is Saudi Arabia getting into a “Nice Reshuffle”?
Labor Drive Survey Q3, 2021: https://www.stats.gov.sa/websites/default/recordsdata/LMSpercent20Q03percent202021A-Final_2.pdf
Labor market knowledge in Bahrain from 2002-2010 are quarterly, however solely annual knowledge can be found from 2011 onwards.
Labour Market Regulatory Authority.
LFS Q3, 2021: https://www.stats.gov.sa/websites/default/recordsdata/LMSpercent20Q03percent202021A-Remaining.pdf
MHRS excludes Industrial exporting corporations from the expat levy price:
Ministry of Human Sources and Social Improvement Steerage on Expat Levy charges:
Okaz Newspaper. تعرف على خطوات تنفيذ «خدمة التنقل الوظيفي» عبر قوى
Peck 2017. Can Hiring Quotas Work? The Impact of the Nitaqat Program on the Saudi Personal Sector.
Saudi Arabia implements expat labor reform.
Saudi Arabia Labor drive survey This autumn, 2021. Desk 4.
Saudi Arabia Labor drive survey This autumn, 2021. Desk 5-7.
Saudi Arabia Labor drive survey This autumn, 2021. Desk 6-1.
Saudi Arabia’s labor reform on expat labor mobility.
U.S. Social Safety Administration:
World Financial institution Group on Saudi labor reforms:
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